Introduction
Throughout the Johannine literature, many profound themes can be seen and understood through recurring words and images. As part of the strong themes which characterize John’s writing, certain symbols serve to communicate and demonstrate these themes, one of which being water. Thus, while water may not be considered a Johannine theme per se, it can certainly be considered a recurring symbol serving the Johannine theme of life.[1] Furthermore, it is ultimately a symbol rooted in the Old Testament, which John habitually employs to make Christological claims that bear consequence for his followers. With that said, the image of water in the Old Testament is a multi-faceted one, but John primarily draws upon its association to life and the Spirit of God, and the particular blessings which come with the Spirit of God. Water in the Johannine literature is a recurring symbol of new birth and washing that is rooted in the Old Testament and ultimately serves John’s recurring theme of life and the Holy Spirit in his writings.
The Thematic Use of Water in the Old Testament
Before considering how John employs the symbol of water in his writings, it is important to develop an understanding of how the Old Testament uses water, seeing as John strongly draws from the Old Testament for his theology. The following section looks at two things which water does in the Old Testament. Namely, that water brings cleansing, and water brings life.
Water Brings Cleansing
Water is closely associated to cleansing in two particular Old Testament passages: Ezekiel 36, and Zechariah 12-13. Ezekiel 36 is perhaps the most well-known of the two, and indicates a clear connection between water and the spiritual cleansing of God’s people. In Ezekiel 36:25-27 YHWH declares, “I will sprinkle clean water on you, and you shall be clean from all your uncleannesses…I will give you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within you…I will put my Spirit within you, and cause you to walk in my statutes and be careful to obey my rules.”[2] There is an apparent juxtaposition between clean water and the Spirit of God, a connection which is fleshed out in John’s Gospel in particular.[3] However, there seems to be a subtle parallel within this passage from Ezekiel that connects back to the Sinai event of the Israelite Exodus. In Exodus 24, upon receiving the Ten Commandments, Moses sprinkles the people with blood (Exodus 24:8), which in light of Ezekiel 36 can be taken to symbolize a kind of cleansing. This is an exegetically sound connection for two reasons. Firstly, the Hebrew verb זרק used for “sprinkle clean water…” in Ezek. 36:25 is the same verb used for “threw” in Exodus 24:8 (in reference to Moses “throwing” the blood upon the congregation of Israel). Thus, the kind of action God performs to cleanse Israel is a similar action to what Moses performs using blood from the altar, an item already associated with cleansing from sin. Secondly, in both Exodus 24:8 and Ezekiel 36:25 this sprinkling of water or blood occurs with adherence to the law in view (see Ex. 24:7 and Ezek. 36:27). Both were done in relation to fulfilling the laws which God set forth for his people to perform.
Secondly, Zechariah 12-13 also employs this cleansing motif. Zechariah 13:1 reads, “On that day there shall be a fountain opened for the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem, to cleanse them from sin and uncleanness”. The “day” being referred to here is described in 12:10, a day when YHWH says, “I will pour out on the house of David and the inhabitants of Jerusalem a spirit of grace and pleas for mercy, so that, when they look on me, on him whom they have pierced, they shall mourn for him”.[4] Thus, what is being depicted by the prophet Zechariah is an eschatological period in which God will afford them mercy and cleansing from sin. In this period, water plays a significant role, hence the image of the fountain.[5]
An important conclusion to be drawn from seeing these texts in tandem is that this living water is associated with the eschatological age of the Spirit of God.[6] The eschaton described by the prophets will be recognized by the presence of the Spirit of God and living water.[7] These two in tandem would be given to God’s people as a means not for their outward cleansing, but their inward cleansing. This is the connection John seems to make with his Gospel.
Water Brings Life
Next, it should be considered that water is a constant source of life in the Old Testament, and is often seen in juxtaposition to barren deserts and wastelands. Genesis 2:10-14 describes the rivers which had their source in Eden, that all watered the earth and gave it life. In Isaiah 43, water is used as a recurring image of life juxtaposed to the wilderness, commonly associated with death and barrenness. As God is describing the mercy he will have upon Israel, he states that he will make “…rivers in the desert”.[8] That is to say, he will place life where there originally was no life. Lastly, and most poignantly, Ezekiel 47:7-12 depicts a river flowing from the temple sanctuary, that waters those living near it, giving life to humans and creatures alike.[9] The primary conclusion to be drawn from these passages is that rivers, that is flowing water, is a recurring image within the Old Testament associated with bringing life.
Water in John’s Gospel
With a foundational understanding of water’s significance in the Old Testament, now it is necessary to consider how this understanding is employed by John in his gospel. With that said, as Culpepper notes, “…while water is a dominant motif and expanding core symbol, it is less unified and more variable than either light or bread” (193).[10] With this in mind, water should be treated as a symbol ultimately subservient to John’s overall themes of life and how the Holy Spirit relates to this theme in particular. As such, what follows is an examination of how the water relates to the seven signs of Jesus, to baptism, and to the Holy Spirit in John’s Gospel.
Water in the Signs of Jesus
Water plays a role in four of Jesus’ major signs that are recorded in John’s Gospel. Water is either present at or instrumental to Jesus’ signs in the wedding at Cana (John 2:1-12), the healing of the lame man (John 5:1-17), Jesus walking on water (John 6:16-21), and the healing the blind man (John 9:1-7). [11] Each of these narratives will be examined within this section. As will be seen, there is a common theme among these narratives which present Christ as rightful Lord over creation, who uses water to heal as he pleases.
John 2:1-12 The Wedding at Cana
In John 2:1-12, Jesus performs the first of his signs at Cana, changing water into wine. What should be noted is that the water Jesus uses have come from jars storing water used for purification rites. That is, something which might cleanse someone before God. This gives a subtle hint toward the cleansing nature of water in general that is not merely physical, but spiritual also. In this manner, John seems to be pointing forward to that true purification which Jesus would provide by granting the Holy Spirit, associated with living water. And not only the cleansing nature, but the satiating nature of water as well, indicated by the fact that this water is subsequently turned to wine and consumed by the wedding attendees. Additionally, Olsson connects this narrative and the Sinai event. According to Olsson, the idea of purification at Sinai was stressed among Jewish texts like the Midrash, and he ultimately juxtaposes the wedding at Cana with Sinai as two parallel events manifesting God’s glory.[12] Here, the manifestation of God’s glory is closely tied with the purification of his followers.[13]
John 5:1-17 The Healing of the Lame Man
This is a particularly interesting narrative for the current discussion, as the presence of water is not particularly instrumental in a miracle. However, the water present in the narrative is nonetheless associated with healing. As such, the narrative is not communicating healing that is local to the pool of water featured in the narrative. Rather, it is placing the source of healing in Christ’s person. The inclusion of this narrative thus presents a foundational understanding with which to read all other “water narratives” in John’s Gospel. Water may be used for healing should God will to use it. Otherwise, water in and of itself does not heal. However, as will be seen, Jesus does in fact use water to heal a blind man, because he is Lord over creation.
John 6:16-21 Jesus Walking on Water
While this narrative is not universally considered one of Jesus’ major signs, it is nonetheless worth commenting on. In light of the above comments, this narrative further asserts that the waters are ultimately subservient to Jesus who is rightful Lord of creation. Culpepper points out that the account of Jesus walking on water in serves a Christological function.[14] This function is very distinct from the other appearances of water in John’s gospel, which are usually linked to life or the Spirit in some way. Here, water is a subservient symbol communicating Christ’s divinity, and his rightful ability to command water and use it for whatever means he pleases.
John 9:1-7 The Healing of the Blind Man
In this narrative, Jesus heals a blind man by making mud with his own saliva, rubbing it on the man’s eyes, and commanding him to “…wash in the pool of Siloam” (9:7a). Then John writes, “So he went and washed and came back seeing” (9:7b). This is perhaps the most explicit connection between water and healing in Jesus’ signs. Grigsby connects this healing to the aforementioned Old Testament passages in Zech. 13:1 and Ezek. 47:1-2, each of which connect water to healing from sin and infirmity.[15]
Water and Baptism
Water’s explicit connection to baptism in John’s Gospel occurs in the first three chapters, and is not mentioned again in the following chapters. However, there is enough material in the first three chapters of John to indicate a strong connection between baptism and two things: firstly, the eschatological age of the Spirit of God and secondly, Jewish rites of purification. To examine this, what follows is a survey of three key passages related to baptism in John’s gospel.
John 1:19-34 The Testimony of John the Baptist
This is the first and foundational text regarding the nature of John’s ministry and in what manner John the Baptist prepares for the coming of Christ, and how baptism relates to this coming. In short, John was baptizing in order to signal the eschatological age characterized by the Holy Spirit. As mentioned above, the prophets of the Old Testament prophesied about a future period in which God would give the Holy Spirit and a fountain of living water to cleanse his people.[16] This is why the first question the priests of Jerusalem ask John is, “Who are you?”.[17][18] It would seem that the priests have in mind this eschatological age when they see John baptizing in the Jordan. By doing this, John presents the possibility that he himself could be the Messiah, but as he confesses, he is not. Thus, John’s baptismal ministry is loaded with eschatological implications.
The next day, when pressed further regarding his purpose and identity, John declares “…for this purpose I came baptizing with water, that he might be revealed to Israel…I saw the Spirit descend from heaven like a dove, and it remained on him”.[19] The significance in this passage regards the presence of the Spirit upon Jesus, which would have direct implications for the baptism of Jesus compared to John’s. Gieschen helpfully explains that “Baptisms that are associated with Jesus are not only water, but “water and the Spirit” (John 3:5; cf. 1:33)”.[20] Gieschen further notes that, compared to the Synoptic Gospels, “John only, however, states that the Spirit abides on Jesus”.[21] This is the key distinctive between John and Jesus, namely, that Jesus is the one with the unique prerogative to baptize with the Holy Spirit.
John 3:1-15 Baptism with Water and the Spirit
John 3:1-15 recounts Jesus’ discussion with Nicodemus, a Jewish leader coming to Jesus by night to speak with him. Here it is apparent that Nicodemus has at least an partial understanding that Jesus is from God, yet he fails to realize the full extent of Jesus’ identity. To this misunderstanding, Jesus begins to tell him that “…unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God”.[22] This necessarily causes confusion in Nicodemus, to which Jesus responds by asking, “Are you the teacher of Israel and yet you do not understand these things?”[23] This then begs the question: what is it that Nicodemus should be seeing as a Jewish teacher that he is not seeing? It is this: he is failing to see the eschatological fulfilment Jesus is bringing about with his ministry, which John the Baptist was “preparing the way” for. Namely, Jesus’ Spirit-filled baptismal ministry. This eschatological baptismal ministry is ultimately in view when John the Baptist’s baptismal ministry is being discussed by the Jewish priests in John 1. The questions of the they ask John reflect a certain suspicion on their part that this could be the end times. In short, the crux of Jesus’ speech to Nicodemus is this: Jesus’ Spirit-filled baptismal ministry is signaling the eschatological age, and Nicodemus and the Jewish leaders fail to acknowledge it. Thus, the water of John 3:5 may be linked to baptismal waters,[24] seeing as the subject of eschatological fulfilment is already on the table, and baptismal ministry has distinct connections to the eschatological age, because living, purifying water is associated with this age.[25]
John 3:22-4:3 John the Baptist Exalts Christ
This text primarily regards the identity of Jesus in comparison to John, and their respective roles in salvation history. With that said, while baptism is not in immediate focus here, it is the catalyst that begins the whole scene depicted here. Upon observing the crowds flocking to Jesus to be baptized, a discussion arises between a Jew and John’s disciples regarding purification.[26] As John’s disciples continue to struggle in understanding Jesus’ mission, John the Baptist subsequently explains to them the distinction between his own ministry and Jesus’ ministry, most poignantly distinguished by the abiding presence of the Spirit upon Christ. Thus, what John goes on to declare, namely, that “He must increase, but I must decrease”[27], is in the context of Jesus’ baptismal ministry, which proclaims an eschatological message that Jesus offers a baptism of living water that is in direct association with the Spirit of God. Jesus is the one who, as the Baptist says in this text, “…gives the Spirit without measure”.[28][29] John the Baptist acknowledges that Jesus is offering an eschatological baptism in the Holy Spirit, which is why the thoughts of John’s disciples inevitably went to the idea of purification upon seeing Jesus baptizing. Specifically, because they likely had a concept of the cleansing which only the Spirit of God could bring, and this cleansing which was closely associated with the Old Testament prophetic texts that spoke of “living water”.[30]
Water and the Holy Spirit
As has been mentioned previously, water and the Spirit of God are consistently connected throughout the Old Testament and in John’s writings. John uses this Old Testament connection to communicate the nature of the Holy Spirit and why it is so significant that Jesus has come to grant the Spirit. John consistently links the Spirit with water. With that said, it should be noted that much of the Spirit-water connection has been covered in the previously discussed passages regarding baptism, as the water commonly associated with the Spirit is baptism. However, what follows is an examination of two other key passages which associate the Spirit with living water, not for cleansing, but for drinking.[31]
John 4:1-16 The Woman at the Well
The discussion between Jesus and the Samaritan woman at the well is a discussion regarding Jesus’ identity, and the difference between earthly and living waters. At the start of their conversation, Jesus says, “If you knew the gift of God, and who it is that is saying to you, ‘give me a drink’, you would have asked him, and he would have given you living water”.[32] While there is not an explicit connection between this living water[33] and the Holy Spirit just yet, this text still provides some strong signs. Firstly, Jesus here mentions “the gift of God”, which seems to allude to the Spirit. Such identification of the Spirit with God’s gift can be derived from the upper room discourse. Secondly, the qualifier of “living” water is associated with life, and the Spirit is described as the Spirit of life. In short, Jesus reveals to the woman the opportunity to partake of living water that comes as a result of direct relationship with him. In contrast to the waters associated with new birth and purification in John 1-3 through various baptismal texts, this water Jesus speaks of is not for washing, but for drinking. Such water, “…will become in him a spring of water welling up to eternal life”.[34] Thus, what is in view here is a spiritual water granting spiritual life.
John 7:37-39 Rivers of Living Water
This text qualifies and grants further clarity to the subject matter of Jesus’ discussion with the woman at the well when it comes to the Holy Spirit’s connection to living water. On the last day of the Feast of Booths, [35] Jesus declares, “…If anyone thirsts, let him come to me and drink”.[36] John then adds an aside to this declaration, commenting that Jesus said this “…about the Spirit, whom those who believed in him were to receive…”.[37] Thus, Jesus himself still refrains from explicitly connecting the Spirit to water, but John makes the connection for the sake of the reader. The consequence of this connection is the localization of God’s Spirit within the believing heart. In doing this, John (whether inadvertently or otherwise) makes a connection between the believing heart and the temple of the Lord. In a sense, John is making these two locations one and the same, which indeed fits in with John’s understanding of the temple, as evidenced by John’s inclusion of the particular narratives mentioning the destruction of the temple.[38]
Water in John’s Epistles
The primary role water takes in John’s epistles is primarily in relation to the Johannine theme of testimony. Two key texts will be studied on this point. Namely, John 19:34-35 and 1 John 5:6-8. Firstly, John 19:34-35 gives the only gospel account of the pierced side of Jesus, likely because this event is crucial to how John understands its theological significance. In this account, John records how a soldier pierces the side of Jesus’ dead body, and that from his dead side flowed “…blood and water”.[39] This event has been interpreted in many ways. Some claim it to be eucharistic in nature, while others claim it is maternal in nature; that is to say, the water and blood serve to symbolize the new birth Christ’s death brings about.[40] Either way, proper interpretation of the water and blood must look behind to the Old Testament, and ahead to John’s first epistle.
In Zechariah 12:10-13:1, the prophet depicts God who describes himself as the one whom Israel “…[has] pierced”[41] by their sins, and that “when they look on me, on him whom they have pierced, they shall mourn for him, as one mourns for an only child, and weep bitterly over him”.[42] The prophet writes also, that “On that day there shall be a fountain opened for the house of David…to cleanse them from sin and uncleanness.[43]
Lastly, 1 John 5:6-8 further clarifies the significance of the water and blood in John 19:34-35. In short, both this epistolary text and John 19 communicate that the water and the blood are means of assurance regarding the veracity of Jesus’ claims. In 1 John 5:6-8, by testifying to the water and the blood, the Spirit is testifying to the final completion of Jesus’ mission on earth. Thus, in light of John’s theme of testimony which largely centers around the identity of Jesus, the Spirit’s testimony concerning Christ’s person is vindicated by the water and the blood.
Water in the Book of Revelation
The final water-based image to consider in the Johannine corpus is the river of life, being a key eschatological image, as it is mentioned in the New Jerusalem, and simultaneously harkens back to the rivers that went through the Garden of Eden. Beginning in Eden, a river flowed which watered the Garden and gave life to the surrounding area. This bears resemblance to the water depicted in Ezekiel 47, which describes a river flowing from God’s temple, granting life to those who were near it. Thus, this eschatological image of a life-giving river is set up by the Old Testament, which John ultimately picks up and places in the New Jerusalem of Revelation 22. Here John writes that “…the angel showed me the river of the water of life…flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb through the middle of the street of the city…”.[44] Two observations should be noted regarding John’s use of the Old Testament water imagery. Firstly, he seems to be identifying this river with that river which flowed from the temple of God in Ezekiel 47. Secondly, the river of Ezekiel 47 and the river of Revelation 22 both water trees whose leaves grant healing to the nations. As a final note, by bringing this river image into communication with John’s first epistle and gospel, a theological connection can be made which asserts that John is locating the source of the river of life in Jesus Christ, and that those who would believe in him may drink of and by cleansed by these eschatological waters.
Conclusion
Water in the Johannine literature is properly understood with a foundational Old Testament understanding of water imagery. This involves seeing water in connection with the life it gives and its recurring connection to the Spirit of God, who is also considered the Spirit of life. Thus, while water may not be considered a Johannine “theme” per se, it nonetheless serves as an indispensable image in direct connection with Johannine soteriology. Through John’s use of water throughout his writings, he communicates an eschatological message that the Spirit of God is made available through belief in Jesus Christ, who grants to his disciples fullness of life without measure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Culpepper, R. Alan. Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983.
Gieschen, Charles A. “Baptism and the Lord’s Supper in the Gospel of John.” Concordia Theological Quarterly 78, no. 1–2 (December 31, 2014): 23–45. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=9a9ed08f-9bf6-3282-b183-42a13aa76a7f.
Grigsby, Bruce H. “Washing in the Pool of Siloam: A Thematic Anticipation of the Johannine Cross.” Novum Testamentum 27, no. 3 (December 31, 1985): 227–35. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=305ff18c-b412-35a0-9bd4-1448b918e6d0.
Jones, Larry Paul. The Symbol of Water in the Gospel of John. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 1997. Accessed November 3, 2025. ProQuest Ebook Central. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/lbc/detail.action?docID=742873.
Koester, Craig R. Symbolism in the Fourth Gospel: Meaning, Mystery, Community. Second edition. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.
Ng, Wai-Yee. Water Symbolism in John: An Eschatological Interpretation. New York: Petr Lang Publishing, 2001.
Olsson, Birger. “Structure and Meaning in the Fourth Gospel; a Text-Linguistic Analysis of John 2:1-11 and 4:1-42.” Dissertation, Gleerup, 1974.
Ryken, Leland, James C. Wilhoit, and Tremper III Longman, eds. 2010. “WATER.” In Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, 1st ed. InterVarsity Press. https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6NDQ2MTcwOQ==?aid=96704.
Society for New Testament Studies Johannine Writings Seminar. Critical Readings of John 6. Edited by R. Alan Culpepper. Leiden: Brill, 1997.
Van Deventer, Cornelia, and William Domeris. “Spiritual Birth, Living Water, and New Creation: Mapping Life-Giving Metaphors in the Fourth Gospel.” Conspectus 32 (December 31, 2021): 144–57. doi:10.54725/conspectus.2021.2.8.
[1] See Ng, Wai-Yee. Water Symbolism in John: An Eschatological Interpretation. New York: Petr Lang Publishing, 2001.
[2] The Holy Bible: English Standard Version. 2016. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles.
[3] It is important to note at this point that the description of “clean” water seems to correlate to the notion of “living water” in John’s Gospel. This will be expanded upon below.
[4] This bears clear resemblance to the image of Christ being pierced, also prophesied in Isaiah 53:5.
[5] This eschatological age is also alluded to by Joel 2:28, describing the day in which the Spirit of God will be “poured out on all flesh”. With that said, while this is a rather indirect connection, it could be said that the image of “pouring” could connect to water as well.
[6] As a sidenote, this age is characterized also by the absence of idols, which gives further context to John’s hope that his spiritual children keep themselves from idols (1 John 5:21).
[7] This perhaps is why John was baptizing as one “calling in the wilderness” to “prepare a way for the Lord”. John’s baptismal ministry was the sign that the eschatological age of the Spirit was coming, which is why John emphasized that he himself was not this Messiah, because he did not possess the eschatological Spirit of God. It is Jesus who possesses this Spirit, and the one upon whom this Spirit rests.
[8] Isaiah 43:19
[9] Here lies another connection to Christ, seeing as this water in Ezekiel is sourced in the temple. For John, Jesus presents himself as the new temple, and water indeed flowed from him along with blood at his death (John 19:34). Thus, Jesus is the fulfillment of this vision in Isaiah, which John seems to see.
[10] Culpepper, R. Alan. Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983.
[11] It should be mentioned that there are other sign narratives that feature water, though it is a stretch to say they play a thematic role in those narratives. Those narratives include the healing of the official’s son (John 4:46-54) and feeding the five thousand (John 6:1-15). In these narratives, water is primarily a geographical feature as opposed to a thematic symbol.
[12] Olsson, Birger. 1974. “Structure and Meaning in the Fourth Gospel; a Text-Linguistic Analysis of John 2:1-11 and 4:1-42.” Dissertation, Gleerup.
[13] It remains to be explained just how this works itself it. Specifically, whether the manifestation of God’s glory is the cause of purification, or if the people must be purified in order to bear God’s glory. However, this is beyond the scope of this paper.
[14] Society for New Testament Studies Johannine Writings Seminar. 1997. Critical Readings of John 6. Edited by R. Alan Culpepper. Leiden: Brill.
[15] Grigsby, Bruce. 1985. “Washing in the Pool of Siloam: A Thematic Anticipation of the Johannine Cross.” Novum Testamentum 27:227–35. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1560874.
[16] Zech. 13:1
[17] John 1:19
[18] It should be noted that the Johannine literary device of misunderstanding comes into play here, and in fact comes into play in the following baptismal accounts. Each baptism narrative involves misunderstanding in some way. In this case, it regards how the priests are seeking to comprehend the role of John in the apparent coming of the Messiah.
[19] John 1:31-32
[20] Gieschen, Charles A. 2014. “Baptism and the Lord’s Supper in the Gospel of John.” Concordia Theological Quarterly 78 (1–2): 23–45. EBSCOhost.
[21] See above
[22] John 3:5
[23] John 3:10
[24] See Koester, Craig R. Symbolism in the Fourth Gospel: Meaning, Mystery, Community. Second edition. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.
[25] See Zech. 13:1
[26] It should be noted that this is another instance of John’s literary feature of misunderstanding, in which some party fails to understand the nature of Jesus’ teaching and mission. Furthermore, this is the second instance in which purification is mentioned, the first instance being in John 2:1-12 in which Jesus used the water of purification jars to perform his miracle.
[27] John 3:30
[28] John 3:34
[29] This could also be in connection to Ezek. 4:11, 16, which depict an exilic Israel drinking water by measure, or in rations due to a lack of abundance.
[30] See again Zech. 13:1
[31] With that said, the link between water and cleansing is also (potentially) made in the foot washing narrative of John 13. Regarding this narrative, Jones makes note of the fact that the verb for ‘washing’ occurs eight times compared to the word for ‘water’ which occurs only once (180). Thus, this narrative possibly contains more connotations of spiritual purification which has already been linked to water throughout John’s gospel. See Jones, Larry Paul. 1997. The Symbol of Water in the Gospel of John. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Accessed December 8, 2025. ProQuest Ebook Central.
[32] John 4:10
[33] Regarding the idea of “living water” in John’s gospel, Köstenberger writes, “…on a literal level denotes fresh spring water in contrast to stagnant water” (151). This makes it more apparent that Jesus is using a double entendre as he discusses living water next to a physical well.
[34] John 4:14
[35] A ceremony occurred during the Feast of Booths in which water was taken from a spring and poured out. Thus, Jesus’ words are spoken against the backdrop of this event. Jesus is speaking of water because it was on the minds of the people present.
[36] John 7:37
[37] John 7:39
[38] An additional connection may be made to Ezekiel 47, which depicts water flowing from the temple of the Lord.
[39] John 19:34
[40] See Van Deventer, Cornelia, and William Domeris. “Spiritual Birth, Living Water, and New Creation: Mapping Life-Giving Metaphors in the Fourth Gospel.” Conspectus 32 (December 31, 2021): 144–57. doi:10.54725/conspectus.2021.2.8.
[41] Zech. 12:10
[42] Zech. 12:10
[43] Zech. 13:1
[44] Rev. 22:1-2
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